Childhood Studies and Research

Мозг первоклассника u успешная учеба.

2007-04-04T18:47:33Z

Наш мозг можно условно разделить на три блока. Первый (нижний) блок отвечает за подачу энергии на два вышележащих уровня. Располагается он в стволе и подкорковых структурах. На втором уровне, находящемся в средних отделах мозга (темя, виски, затылок) осуществляется переработка и хранение информации (это блок памяти, восприятия предметов и пространства). Третий уровень - уровень программирования и контроля деятельности, которому принадлежат планирующие и смыслообразующис функции, занимает передние (лобные) отделы мозга.
Оказывается, мозг ребенка развивается неравномерно, мозаично. Каждый из этих отделов мозга может иметь те или иные органические изменения и нарушения, причины которых очень многообразны: от недостаточного снабжения кислородом во время беременности - до неправильного прохождения ребенком фаз онтогенеза (подъем головы, сидение, ползание, вставание на ноги и т.п.).
Ученым-нейропсихологам удалось охарактеризовать общие тенденции незрелости мозговых структур детей. На первый план выступает недостаточная сформированность энергетического (первого) блока. Ребенок с подобным дефектом не способен долго заниматься одним видом деятельности из-за быстрой утомляемости, что часто расценивается учителями как интеллектуальная несостоятельность и ведет к снижению самооценки у ребенка. При этом он может быть очень сообразительным, с высоким интеллектом. Просто "энергетических ресурсов" его мозга хватает ненадолго, и начав с хорошей успеваемости, такой ребенок может быстро "скатиться" в троечники.
Такой ребенок, буквально "выкладываясь" в школе, может беспричинно плакать дома после уроков, часто болеть, становиться раздражительным, очень ранимым эмоционально. Из-за этого могут не складываться и отношения с одноклассниками.
Дети, у которых страдает третий блок - блок программирования и контроля, - это те ученики, которые обычно не учитывают общих норм поведения и правил. Они могут встать из-за парты во время урока и пройтись по классу, заниматься на уроке собственной игрой и мешать соседу, забывают, что нужно поднять руку перед тем, как что-то сказать на уроке... Словом, они не учитывают правил поведения. На уроке такие дети могут внимательно работать лишь непродолжительный отрезок времени. А потом начинают зевать, перестают воспринимать информацию, начинают скучать и вертеться. Приспособиться к требованиям и нормам школьной жизни им еще труднее.
Следующими в рейтинге незрелости мозговых структур выступает недостаточность второго блока, из-за которой у школьников страдает память, наблюдаются трудности пространственной ориентировки (а это неточное изображение букв и цифр и неправильное расположение их в тетради). Конечно же, это отражается на учебных успехах. Но эти недостатки не так влияют на адаптацию к школе, как вышеперечисленные два.

ПРИЗНАКИ, ПО КОТОРЫМ МЫ МОЖЕМ ОПРЕДЕЛИТЬ ПЛОХУЮ АДАПТИРОВАННОСТЬ РЕБЕНКА К ШКОЛЕ:

у ребенка сменился эмоциональный фон: появилась из-лишняя агрессивность или пассивность;

он часто болеет;

появилась неуверенность в себе;

быстрая утомляемость проявляется либо в слезливости, либо в болезненной неусидичвости, сопровождающейся неосмысленными хаотичными движениями;

несобранность, не может себя заставить сесть за уроки;

зная правила, не может их применять, делает "глупые" ошибки;

появилось нежелание идти в школу;

избегает дружить со сверстниками.

Если вы хотите определить причину, из-за которой ваш ребенок плохо адаптируется к школе, стоит обратиться к детскому нейропсихологу. Этот специалист в процессе диагностического обследования точно определит, какой участок головного мозга у вашего ребенка недостаточно сформирован.
В зависимости от этого нейропсихолог подберет индивидуальную программу нейрогимнастики (чтобы развить те участки головного мозга, которые не работают в полную силу), когнитивные упражнения (на тренировку памяти, слуха, реакции), а также подскажет, за счет каких сильных звеньев головного мозга можно скомпенсировать недостаточность других.

Анна Потанина, нейропсихолог
Александра Соболева, нейролингвист

Child Abuse and Neglect by Anita Gurian, Ph.D.

2007-04-04T01:02:25Z

Child abuse and neglect can take different forms

Following is a summary of the types of child abuse and neglect, but definitions may vary according to state, legal, medical, mental health, economic, and child welfare systems. The types of child abuse and neglect are usually found in combination rather than alone.

* Child physical abuse (CPA)–an injury to a child or adolescent by a parent or other caregiver after intentional physical contact. It is defined not by the act, but by the results of the act (e.g., bruises, burns, broken bones). The physical injury may result from different acts, including hitting, kicking, slapping, shaking, burning, choking, throwing, whipping, and/or paddling.

* Child sexual abuse (CSA)–any form of sexual activity with a child or adolescent in which consent is not or cannot be provided (e.g., significant disparity in age, development or size). The sexual activity often includes physical contact (e.g., penetration, touching) and may also reflect non-contact sexual acts (e.g., exposure to pornography). Examples of sexual abuse include: fondling, penetration, pornography, exhibitionism, child prostitution, and forced observation of sexual acts.
* Emotional or psychological abuse is assumed to be present in all other forms of abuse. It consists of any attitude or behavior which interferes with a child's mental health or social development, such as yelling, screaming, name calling, shaming, negative comparisons to others, telling children they are "bad" or "no good." Another aspect of emotional abuse is the failure to provide the affection and support necessary for the development a child's well being, such as ignoring, withdrawal of attention, lack of praise, and lack of positive reinforcement.
* Neglect, is defined by the absence of specific events. Five types of neglect are identified:
1. Physical neglect–the failure to provide for a child's physical needs, including adequate food, clothing, and shelter.
2. Emotional neglect–failure to provide for a child's emotional needs which, in extreme cases, can lead to non-organic failure to thrive and physical illness/abnormalities.
3. Medical neglect–failure to provide or comply with prescribed medical treatment, such as immunization, surgery, medication.
4. Mental health neglect–failure to provide or comply with recommended corrections or therapeutic procedures in cases of serious emotional or behavioral disorders. This is not widely accepted and investigated as a form of neglect.
5. Educational neglect–failure to comply with state requirements for school attendance.

Child abuse and neglect occur for many reasons

Although specific causes are not known, a significant body of research has identified several risk and protective factors. Multiple risk factors are more likely to increase the probability of abuse. For example, lack of preparation or knowledge of the demands of parenting can lead to abusive or neglectful parenting. Parents may lack understanding of their children's developmental stages and hold unreasonable expectations for their abilities and behavior; they may be unaware of effective discipline or alternatives to corporal punishment and may also lack knowledge of the health, hygiene and nutritional needs of their children. Individuals who have difficulty in single parenting, in controlling anger in relationships, who have mental health or substance abuse problems, financial stress or housing problems can appear uninterested in the care of their children and are also at risk for abusive behavior.

Warning signs of abuse and neglect–abuse leaves a mark

Early identification and treatment make a difference. Children who have been abused may show:

* sexual acting out
* poor self image
* inability to trust or love others
* aggressive, disruptive and sometimes illegal behavior
* anger and rage
* self destructive or self abusive behavior, suicidal thoughts
* passive, withdrawn or clingy behavior
* fear of entering into new relationships or activities
* anxiety and fears
* school problems or failure
* feelings of sadness or other symptoms of depression
* flashbacks, nightmares
* drug or alcohol abuse
* inability to stay awake or to concentrate for extended periods

Some children are more at-risk than others for negative effects

Children are more vulnerable to psychological problems if the child:

* is abused severely, chronically, physically injurious, and by multiple abusers
* is younger when the abuse/neglect begins
* had a close relationship to the abuser
* was not functioning well before the abuse
* blames him/herself for the abuse and its consequences
* views the world as a dangerous place

Some children may deal more adaptively than others. Protective factors include the child's individual characteristics such as optimism, good self-esteem, intelligence, creativity, humor and independence. Factors such as the availability of social support and a relationship with a caring adult are important. Community well-being, neighborhood stability, and access to health care are also critical.

Child abuse and neglect can seriously affect the lives of children and adolescents

Abuse and neglect affect a child's growth in establishing relationships with others, developing self-esteem, physical activity, academic performance and psychological functioning.

The following consequences of child abuse and neglect are listed by the National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect:

1. Physical health consequences
Immediate physical effects can be relatively minor, (bruises or cuts), or severe, (broken bones, hemorrhage, or even death). Although the physical effects may be short-lived, the psychological effects may be more long-lasting. Other outcomes identified by researchers are:

Shaken baby syndrome can cause vomiting, concussion, respiratory distress, seizures and death.

Impaired brain development can cause important regions of the brain to fail to form properly.

Poor physical health can persist throughout life.
2. Psychological consequences—Emotional effects can persist and contribute to:

Poor mental and emotional health, including vulnerability to depression, anxiety, eating disorders and suicide attempts. Panic disorder, dissociative disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorders have also been associated with abuse. In adulthood, abused children may have trouble with physical closeness, touching, intimacy and trust.

Cognitive difficulties found to be associated with abuse are cognitive impairment, language development, and academic achievement.

Social difficulties of abused and neglected children are shown in difficulty ini forming secure attachments, which may lead to later difficulties in relationships with peers and adults.
3. Behavioral consequences—may occur in some victims of child abuse and neglect

Difficulties during adolescence. Abused and neglected children have been found to be at 25 percent more likely to experience problems such as delinquency, teen pregnancy, low academic achievement, drug use, and mental health problems.

Juvenile delinquency and adult criminality. Abuse and neglect increased the likelihood of adult criminal behavior by 28 percent and violent crime by 30 percent.

Alcohol and drug abuse. Abused and neglected children are likely to smoke cigarettes, abuse alcohol, or take illicit drugs. As many as two-thirds of people in drug treatment programs reported being abused as children.

Abusive behavior. Abusive parents often have experienced abuse during their own childhoods. It is estimated that approximately one-third of abused and neglected children will eventually victimize their own children.
4. Societal consequences—society as a whole is impacted, directly and indirectly, by
child abuse and neglect. Direct costs include those associated with maintaining a child welfare system to investigate and provide interventions for abused and neglected children. Indirect costs include long-term economic consequences such as juvenile and adult criminal activity, mental illness, substance abuse and domestic violence. Also included are losses of productivity, the cost of special education services and use of the health care system, and most importantly, the loss of the unrealized potential of the victims of child abuse and neglect

Prevention

Prevention efforts build on identifying family strengths by means of parent education, home visitation and support groups, helping parents develop parenting skills and understanding non-violent methods of discipline and other techniques of meeting their children's emotional, physical and developmental needs.

Treatment

The most effective interventions are those that are comprehensive, relatively long-term and individualized according to the family's specific needs. Factors to be considered are the child's age, gender, and race, family composition, and characteristics of the parents (need for parent training, substance abuse treatment, etc.) One treatment approach that has proven helpful is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). CBT involves both the abused child and caregiver, provides a model for them to understand their reactions to abuse, normalize their experiences and symptoms, and teaches coping skills for upsetting thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Support groups, access to community resources, parent training and anger management are also helpful strategies.

Summary

Child abuse and neglect represent a problem of alarming proportions, with tremendous psychological and economic costs to both the individuals involved and to society. Early identification and treatment is important to avoid or minimize the long term consequences of abuse. Through treatment the abused child is helped to regain a sense of self-esteem and trust, and the family learns new ways of support and communication. It is critical to support ongoing and new research to point the way to effective strategies of prevention and intervention to change the course of the lives of victimized children.

Parenting Styles/Children's Temperaments: The Match by Anita Gurian, Ph.D.

2007-03-13T15:08:04Z

Parenting style—what is it?

As all parents know all too well, parenting is complex, and there are no easy answers. The interaction of many specific actions and attitudes on the part of parents come together to affect a child's development. Parenting style refers to the broad overall pattern of parental actions, rather than to a single act.

Types of parenting style
Description of parenting styles grew out of the work of Diana Baumrind and other researchers in child development. They looked at children who had the qualities most of us would want in our children: independence, maturity, self-reliance, self-control, curiosity, friendliness and achievement orientation. The researchers then interviewed the parents of these children to ascertain which elements of parenting fostered these qualities. They identified two important ingredients: a) responsiveness, or warmth and supportiveness, and b) demandingness or behavioral control. Descriptions of four styles of parenting, as listed below, are based on these elements.

Authoritarian, or extremely strict, parents are highly controlling. They dictate how their children should behave. They stress obedience to authority and discourage discussion. They are demanding and directive. They expect their orders to be obeyed and do not encourage give-and-take. They have low levels of sensitivity and do not expect their children to disagree with their decisions.

Authoritative, or moderate, parents set limits and rely on natural consequences for children to learn from making their own mistakes. Authoritative parents explain why rules are important and why they must be followed. They reason with their children and consider the children's point of view even though they might not agree. They are firm, with kindness, warmth and love. They set high standards and encourage children to be independent.

Permissive, or indulgent, parents are accepting and warm but exert little control. They do not set limits, and allow children to set their own rules and schedules and activities. They do not demand the high levels of behavior as authoritarian or authoritative parents.

Uninvolved parents, demand little and respond minimally. In extreme cases, this parenting style might entail neglect and rejection.

How does parenting style affect children?

Research has found that the best adjusted children, particularly in terms of social competence, had parents with an authoritative, moderate parenting style. These parents are able to balance clear high demands with emotional responsiveness and respect for their child's autonomy. Both authoritian and authoritative parents have high expectations of their children and use control, but the overly strict parent expects the child to unquestioningly accept parental judgments and allows the child little freedom of expression. Children of overly strict parents are apt to be reliant on the voice of authority and to be lacking in spontaneity. In contrast, the authoritative parent permits the child enough freedom of expression so that he or she can develop a sense of independence. Permissive parents make few demands and their children have been found to have difficulty controlling their impulses, are immature and reluctant to accept responsibility.

One example of the effect of parenting style on the development of children was published in the June 2006 issue of Pediatrics. A research team headed by Dr. Kyung E. Rhee, a pediatrician of Boston Medical Center, analyzed data for 872 children collected by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. They assessed the relationship between child-rearing style, assessed when the children were 4 l/2 years of age, and their weight status two years later. By that time more than 11% of the children were overweight and an additional 13.4% were considered at risk. The children of authoritarian mothers were nearly five times as likely to be overweight as those of authoritative mothers, and children of permissive or uninvolved parents were at more than three times the risk. The researchers stated that an overly strict upbringing can have a negative impact on weight because the children may fail to learn to eat on the basis of hunger and satiety. In such families parents may use food as a reward, insist that children clean their plates, or restrict the kind of amount of food a child can eat.

Parenting styles and some daily dilemmas Annie, aged 4, has grabbed a ball from Luisa, another child.

Strict parent: You come back right this minute and give that ball back to Luisa immediately.

Moderate parent: The ball belongs to Luisa. I know you want to play with it, but why don't you talk it over with her and try and work out a system to take turns?

Permissive parent, believing that Annie should be allowed to express her impulses freely, doesn't suggest a solution and does not use the opportunity to help her solve a problem.

Richard, aged 12, wants to rent an R-rated DVD that his friends have been talking about.

Strict parent gets mad and tells him he can't rent any more DVDs

Moderate parent says no and helps him find a more appropriate DVD

Permissive parent lets him rent it when he pleads.

What about children's styles?

Parenting doesn't happen in a vacuum; parenting is an interactive situation. Children also have styles, or temperaments, which mesh with their parents' style, each affecting the other. Children are born with a tendency toward reacting to people and events in specific ways. This preferred way of responding is called temperament. Children in the same family often have different temperaments, and parents who have several children are likely to recognize the differences and to react differently to each child. For example, a parent would probably respond quite differently to an overly active, impulsive child than to a shy, timid child. She probably would discourage impulsive behavior in the overly active child but encourage assertive behavior in the shy child.

Differences in children's temperament can be seen even in infancy. Researchers have delineated three broad styles of temperament, as follows:

Easy children are calm, happy, adaptable, regular in sleeping and eating habits, positive in mood and interested in new experiences.

Difficult children are often fussy, irregular in feeding and sleeping habits, low in adaptability, fearful of new people and situations, easily upset, high strung, and intense in their reactions.

Slow to warm up children are relatively inactive, reflective, tend to withdraw or to react negatively to novelty, but their reactions gradually become more positive with experience.

It's the mix or the "goodness of fit" between parent and child that matters most. The match or mismatch between a child and parent determines the harmony between them. Temperament, however, is not set in stone. Although temperament has been shown to be consistent over time, family environment and life experiences can make a difference. Parents who are sensitive to their child's temperamental style and can recognize the child's unique strengths, will make family life smoother. For example, when faced with a new situation, a parent of a slow to warm up child may need to be patient and allow him more time to assess a situation. A difficult child may need advance rehearsal of the expected behavior to help her deal with the new situation.

Obviously, parents and children are individuals and not easily categorized. Most will show characteristics of several styles, but over time, one style generally prevails.

What parents should keep in mind Think about how your own temperament style meshes with your child's temperamental style.

Be attuned to your child's temperament and encourage her to accomplish tasks at her own pace.

Make your expectations clear. Setting limits will help your child develop self control.

Encourage children to work with you on generating solutions to problems.

Make communication a priority. Be open to discussion; take time to explain your decisions and motives and listen to your children's point of view.

Make them aware that their opinions are respected, but remain firm in your decisions.

Respect each child's individual strengths and don't compare children.

Every baby is a baby Jesus?

2006-11-19T14:10:27Z

В ходе работы думаю, будет ли верна формулировка "Every baby is a baby Jesus" ("Каждый младенец - младенец Иисус") применительно к западному обществу*. Современные западные конструкты "ребенка" и "родительства**" действительно в большой мере сакрализуют ребенка таким образом, что "идеальное" поведение по отношению к нему может служить примером религиозной практики.

- Ребенку присваивается абсолютная сверхценность.
- "Хороший родитель" и "плохой родитель" - абсолютные и необходимые составляющие понятий "хороший человек" и "плохой человек".
- Самоанализ, самодисциплина и жертвенность в отношении ребенка воспринимаются как основные составляющие праведной жизни родителя. Методы их осуществления близки к методам осуществления религиозной праведности/стремления к праведности.
- В отношени взрослого к ребенку работает система "греха" и "покаяния" - ошибки, совуершенные по отношению к ребенку, воспринимаются как нарушения сакральных правил, принесение извинений и прощение, полученное у ребенка, играет роль отмаливания греха, сколь бы спокойным ни был тон самого разговора. Нередко существуют методы буквального "искупления греха"***.

Это самые общие иллюстрации, при некоторой детализации и уточнении позволяющие расширить схему от модели родитель/ребенок до модели общество/детство (речь идет, конечно, о конструктах).

Американские реформисты 18-19 в. говорили о сакрализации детства в терминах ценности ребенка в качестве сакрального объекта; меня же интересует "институциональная" сакрализация последних десятилетий, в которой ребенок оказывается не просто "сакральным объектом", но религиозной "институцией". В целом, этот тезис позволяет предположить, что "сакрализация детства" в этой форме по целому ряду параметров играет в современном западном обществе системообразующую и стабилизирующую роль, в иных системах/в иные времена отводившуюся на религию (в наибольшей мере, конечно, на христианство).

И уместно, видимо, вспомнить, что период, когда сакрализация детства началась (романтизм, версия об "первородной невинности" ребенка, возникшая в противовес "первородной мерзости", "первородного греха" (см. original innocence vs. original sin)), был как раз периодом начала снижения влияния религии на общество.

Future reading, - к примеру, Edward Shorter in The Making of theModern Family, тема "sacrifice test".

* Если не оговаривается особо, я всегда имею в виду средний класс и выше, преимущественно - США, Восточная Европа, Австралия/Новая
зеландия, - словом, широко понятый "запад". Со всеми оговорками.
** Слово "родительство" тут формально заменяет слово "опекунство" - т.е. ответственность за ввереного тебе ребенка, какой бы ни была биологическая связь ребенка и отвечающего за него взрослого.
*** Это можно применить к целому спектру отношений, не только родитель/ребенок, но именно в этом сочетании острота восприятия ошибок и их "отмены" делает ситуацию особой, осоьенно на общем фоне "сакрализации детства".

Наверху / On top

2006-11-13T08:19:14Z

English below.

Это премодерируемое сообщество предназначено для обсуждения тем, связанных с исследованием детства. Приветствуются посты как на русском, так и на английском, но английский предпочтителен для тех, кто хочет потенциально сделать обсуждение топика более широким. Среди тем, предлагаемых к обсуждению:
- Новости, касающиеся различных аспектов детства/исследований детства
- Книги, статьи, теории, сайты, связанные с темой
- Исторические факты, подробности, цитаты
- Идеи, теории, конструкты, аспекты восприятия детства
- Обсуждение исследований, находящихся в работе
- Вопросы к членам сообщества, касающиеся тех или иных исследований/поиска материалов и т.д.
- Визуальные материалы: фото, видео.

Мы хотели бы видеть это сообщество профессионально полезным и интересным. Давайте попытаемся воздерживаться от флейм-войн и соблюдать вежливость в ходе дискуссий :)

This premoderated community is dedicated to childhood studies. Posts are welcomed in Russian as well as English, but English is preffered for those who want to make a discussion of their topic international. Among issues to be addressed and discussed:

- News related to both childhood topics and childhood studies/research
- New books, papers, theories, sites related to the issue and recommended/criticized
- Historical facts, details and quotes
- Topics on representation of child and childhood in film, literature etc
- Ideas, thoughts, new theories and perceptions
- Research reports and notes
- Questions related to research/materials search/history issues
- Visual materials: photos, video materials and other visual materials related

We would like to maintain this community as practical rather then flame-oriented. Please let's try to keep it in tact, base our claims and be polite during our discussions.